Post by gands on Aug 21, 2007 9:51:46 GMT 8
I purposely posted this item as guide to all of us whenever we raise argument(s) eiIther in our forum boards or in other sites. It's better to have finesse whenever we raise points against post we disagree or whenever we answer to arguments that are likewise raised against ours.
I myself have made several mistakes in raising arguments but i don't think it would hurt to share my thoughts on this matter.
To be really safe against getting rebutted, stick to facts and avoid opinions. Pay respect to the source from which the facts are taken by citing their address. If it is inevitable that opinions are given, be humble enough to say so.
If I sound like i'm preaching, please be gracious to tell me so.
Anyway, here's the meat of my post:
Logical Fallacies or Fallacies in Argumentation
1. Ad hominim - Attacking the individual instead of the argument.). This is the error of attacking the character or motives of a person who has stated an idea, rather than the idea itself.
1. Example: You are so stupid you argument couldn't possibly be true.
2. Example: I figured that you couldn't possibly get it right, so I ignored your comment.
3. Example: responding to a quotation from Richard Nixon on the subject of free trade with China by saying, "We all know Nixon was a liar and a cheat, so why should we believe anything he says?"
2. Appeal to force - The hearer is told that something bad will happen to him if he does not accept the argument.
1. Example: If you don't want to get beat up, you will agree with what I say.
2. Example: Convert or die.
3. Appeal to pity or Argumentum ad misericordiam (argument or appeal to pity). - The hearer is urged to accept the argument based upon an appeal to emotions, sympathy, etc.
1. Example: You owe me big time because I really stuck my neck out for you.
2. Example: Oh come on, I've been sick. That's why I missed the deadline.
4. Appeal to the popular or Argumentum ad populum - the hearer is urged to accept a position because a majority of people hold to it.
1. Example: The majority of people like soda. Therefore, soda is good.
2. Example: Everyone else is doing it. Why shouldn't you?
5. Appeal to tradition or Argumentum ad antiquitatem - trying to get someone to accept something because it has been done or believed for a long time. This is the familiar argument that some policy, behavior, or practice is right or acceptable because "it's always been done that way." This is an extremely popular fallacy in debate rounds
1. Example: This is the way we've always done it. Therefore, it is the right way.
2. Example: The Catholic church's tradition demonstrates that this doctrine is true.
3. Example: "Every great civilization in history has provided state subsidies for art and culture!"
6. Begging the Question or Petitio principii - Assuming the thing to be true that you are trying to prove. It is circular. Circular argumentation occurs when someone uses what they are trying to prove as part of the proof of that thing
1. Example: God exists because the Bible says so. The Bible is inspired. Therefore, we know that God exists.
2. Example: I am a good worker because Frank says so. How can we trust Frank? Simple. I will vouch for him.
7. Cause and Effect or cum hoc ergo propter hoc (with this, therefore because of this- assuming that the effect is related to a cause because the events occur together.
1. Example: When the rooster crows, the sun rises. Therefore, the rooster causes the sun to rise.
2. Example: When the fuel light goes on in my car, I soon run out of gas. Therefore, the fuel light causes my car to run out of gas.
8. Circular Argument Circulus in demonstrando (circular argument). - see Begging the Question -
1. Example - "Marijuana is illegal in every state in the nation. And we all know that you shouldn't violate the law. Since smoking pot is illegal, you shouldn't smoke pot. And since you shouldn't smoke pot, it is the duty of the government to stop people from smoking it, which is why marijuana is illegal!"
9. Division - assuming that what is true of the whole is true for the parts.
1. Example: That car is blue. Therefore, its engine is blue.
2. Example: Your family is weird. That means that you are weird too.
10. Equivocation - The same term is used in an argument in different places but the word has different meanings.
1. Example: A bird in the hand is worth two in the bush. Therefore, a bird is worth more than President Bush.
2. Example: Evolution states that one species can change into another. We see that cars have evolved into different styles. Therefore, since evolution is a fact in cars, it is true in species.
11. False Dilemma or Complex question. - Two choices are given when in actuality there could be more choices possible.
1. Example: You either did knock the glass over or you did not. Which is it?
2. Example: Do you still beat your wife?
12. Genetic Fallacy - The attempt to endorse or disqualify a claim because of the origin or irrelevant history of the claim
1. Example: The Nazi regime developed the Volkswagen Beetle. Therefore, you should not by a VW Beetle because of who started it.
2. Example: Frank's just got out of jail last year and since it was his idea to start the hardware store, I can't trust him.
13. Guilt by Association - Rejecting an argument or claim because the person proposing it likes someone is disliked by another.
1. Example: Hitler liked dogs. Therefore dogs are bad.
2. Example: Your friend is a thief. Therefore, I cannot trust you.
14. Non Sequitur - Comments or information that do not logically follow from a premise or the conclusion.
1. Example: We know why it rained today, because I washed my car.
2. Example: I don't care what you say. We don't need any more bookshelves. As long as the carpet is clean, we are fine.
3. Example: "Racism is wrong. Therefore, we need affirmative action."
15. Poisoning the well - Presenting negative information about a person before he/she speaks so as to discredit the person's argument.
1. Example: Frank is pompous, arrogant, and thinks he knows everything. So, let's hear what Frank has to say about the subject.
2. Example: Don't listen to him because he is a loser.
16. Red Herring - The introduction of a topic not related to the subject at hand.
1. Example: I know your car isn't working right. But, if you had gone to the store one day earlier, you'd not be having problems.
2. Example: I know I forgot to deposit the check into the bank yesterday. But, nothing I do pleases you.
3. Example: "The opposition claims that welfare dependency leads to higher crime rates -- but how are poor people supposed to keep a roof over their heads without our help?"
17. Special Pleading (double standard) - Applying a different standard to another that is applied to oneself.
1. Example: You can't possibly understand menopause because you are a man.
2. Example: Those rules don't apply to me since since I am older than you.
18. Straw Man Argument or Argumentum ad logicam (argument to logic- Producing an argument to attack that is a weaker representation of the truth. This is the fallacy of assuming that something is false simply because a proof or argument that someone has offered for it is invalid; this reasoning is fallacious because there may be another proof or argument that successfully supports the proposition
1. Example: The government doesn't take care of the poor because it doesn't have a tax specifically to support the poor.
2. Example: We know that evolution is false because we did not evolve from monkeys.
19. Category Mistake - Attributing a property to something that could not possibly have that property.
1. Example: Blue sleeps faster than Wednesday.
2. Example: Saying logic is transcendental is like saying cars would exist if matter didn't.
20. Argumentum ad ignorantiam (argument to ignorance) - This is the fallacy of assuming something is true simply because it hasn't been proven false.
1. Example: that global warming is certainly occurring because nobody has demonstrated conclusively that it is not. But failing to prove the global warming theory false is not the same as proving it true
21. Argumentum ad nauseam (argument to the point of disgust; i.e., by repitition). This is the fallacy of trying to prove something by saying it again and again. But no matter how many times you repeat something, it will not become any more or less true than it was in the first place.
22. Argumentum ad numerum (argument or appeal to numbers). This fallacy is the attempt to prove something by showing how many people think that it's true. But no matter how many people believe something, that doesn't necessarily make it true or right.
1. Example: "At least 70% of all Americans support restrictions on access to abortions." Well, maybe 70% of Americans are wrong!
23. Argumentum ad verecundiam - This fallacy occurs when someone tries to demonstrate the truth of a proposition by citing some person who agrees, even though that person may have no expertise in the given area,
1. Example: , some people like to quote Einstein's opinions about politics (he tended to have fairly left-wing views), as though Einstein were a political philosopher rather than a physicist.
24. Dicto simpliciter (spoken simply, i.e., sweeping generalization. This is the fallacy of making a sweeping statement and expecting it to be true of every specific case
1. Example: "Women are on average not as strong as men and less able to carry a gun. Therefore women can't pull their weight in a military unit."
25. Nature, appea to-This is the fallacy of assuming that whatever is "natural" or consistent with "nature" (somehow defined) is good, or that whatever conflicts with nature is bad
25. Slippery slope - A slippery slope fallacy is an argument that says adopting one policy or taking one action will lead to a series of other policies or actions also being taken, without showing a causal connection between the advocated policy and the consequent policies.
Example: "If we legalize marijuana, the next thing you know we'll legalize heroin, LSD, and crack cocaine."
26. Tu quoque ("you too"). This is the fallacy of defending an error in one's reasoning by pointing out that one's opponent has made the same error.
Example: "They accuse us of making unjustified assertions. But they asserted a lot of things, too!"
Sources:
amfree.blog-city.com/argument_fallacies.htm
www.carm.org/apologetics/fallacies.htm
I myself have made several mistakes in raising arguments but i don't think it would hurt to share my thoughts on this matter.
To be really safe against getting rebutted, stick to facts and avoid opinions. Pay respect to the source from which the facts are taken by citing their address. If it is inevitable that opinions are given, be humble enough to say so.
If I sound like i'm preaching, please be gracious to tell me so.
Anyway, here's the meat of my post:
Logical Fallacies or Fallacies in Argumentation
1. Ad hominim - Attacking the individual instead of the argument.). This is the error of attacking the character or motives of a person who has stated an idea, rather than the idea itself.
1. Example: You are so stupid you argument couldn't possibly be true.
2. Example: I figured that you couldn't possibly get it right, so I ignored your comment.
3. Example: responding to a quotation from Richard Nixon on the subject of free trade with China by saying, "We all know Nixon was a liar and a cheat, so why should we believe anything he says?"
2. Appeal to force - The hearer is told that something bad will happen to him if he does not accept the argument.
1. Example: If you don't want to get beat up, you will agree with what I say.
2. Example: Convert or die.
3. Appeal to pity or Argumentum ad misericordiam (argument or appeal to pity). - The hearer is urged to accept the argument based upon an appeal to emotions, sympathy, etc.
1. Example: You owe me big time because I really stuck my neck out for you.
2. Example: Oh come on, I've been sick. That's why I missed the deadline.
4. Appeal to the popular or Argumentum ad populum - the hearer is urged to accept a position because a majority of people hold to it.
1. Example: The majority of people like soda. Therefore, soda is good.
2. Example: Everyone else is doing it. Why shouldn't you?
5. Appeal to tradition or Argumentum ad antiquitatem - trying to get someone to accept something because it has been done or believed for a long time. This is the familiar argument that some policy, behavior, or practice is right or acceptable because "it's always been done that way." This is an extremely popular fallacy in debate rounds
1. Example: This is the way we've always done it. Therefore, it is the right way.
2. Example: The Catholic church's tradition demonstrates that this doctrine is true.
3. Example: "Every great civilization in history has provided state subsidies for art and culture!"
6. Begging the Question or Petitio principii - Assuming the thing to be true that you are trying to prove. It is circular. Circular argumentation occurs when someone uses what they are trying to prove as part of the proof of that thing
1. Example: God exists because the Bible says so. The Bible is inspired. Therefore, we know that God exists.
2. Example: I am a good worker because Frank says so. How can we trust Frank? Simple. I will vouch for him.
7. Cause and Effect or cum hoc ergo propter hoc (with this, therefore because of this- assuming that the effect is related to a cause because the events occur together.
1. Example: When the rooster crows, the sun rises. Therefore, the rooster causes the sun to rise.
2. Example: When the fuel light goes on in my car, I soon run out of gas. Therefore, the fuel light causes my car to run out of gas.
8. Circular Argument Circulus in demonstrando (circular argument). - see Begging the Question -
1. Example - "Marijuana is illegal in every state in the nation. And we all know that you shouldn't violate the law. Since smoking pot is illegal, you shouldn't smoke pot. And since you shouldn't smoke pot, it is the duty of the government to stop people from smoking it, which is why marijuana is illegal!"
9. Division - assuming that what is true of the whole is true for the parts.
1. Example: That car is blue. Therefore, its engine is blue.
2. Example: Your family is weird. That means that you are weird too.
10. Equivocation - The same term is used in an argument in different places but the word has different meanings.
1. Example: A bird in the hand is worth two in the bush. Therefore, a bird is worth more than President Bush.
2. Example: Evolution states that one species can change into another. We see that cars have evolved into different styles. Therefore, since evolution is a fact in cars, it is true in species.
11. False Dilemma or Complex question. - Two choices are given when in actuality there could be more choices possible.
1. Example: You either did knock the glass over or you did not. Which is it?
2. Example: Do you still beat your wife?
12. Genetic Fallacy - The attempt to endorse or disqualify a claim because of the origin or irrelevant history of the claim
1. Example: The Nazi regime developed the Volkswagen Beetle. Therefore, you should not by a VW Beetle because of who started it.
2. Example: Frank's just got out of jail last year and since it was his idea to start the hardware store, I can't trust him.
13. Guilt by Association - Rejecting an argument or claim because the person proposing it likes someone is disliked by another.
1. Example: Hitler liked dogs. Therefore dogs are bad.
2. Example: Your friend is a thief. Therefore, I cannot trust you.
14. Non Sequitur - Comments or information that do not logically follow from a premise or the conclusion.
1. Example: We know why it rained today, because I washed my car.
2. Example: I don't care what you say. We don't need any more bookshelves. As long as the carpet is clean, we are fine.
3. Example: "Racism is wrong. Therefore, we need affirmative action."
15. Poisoning the well - Presenting negative information about a person before he/she speaks so as to discredit the person's argument.
1. Example: Frank is pompous, arrogant, and thinks he knows everything. So, let's hear what Frank has to say about the subject.
2. Example: Don't listen to him because he is a loser.
16. Red Herring - The introduction of a topic not related to the subject at hand.
1. Example: I know your car isn't working right. But, if you had gone to the store one day earlier, you'd not be having problems.
2. Example: I know I forgot to deposit the check into the bank yesterday. But, nothing I do pleases you.
3. Example: "The opposition claims that welfare dependency leads to higher crime rates -- but how are poor people supposed to keep a roof over their heads without our help?"
17. Special Pleading (double standard) - Applying a different standard to another that is applied to oneself.
1. Example: You can't possibly understand menopause because you are a man.
2. Example: Those rules don't apply to me since since I am older than you.
18. Straw Man Argument or Argumentum ad logicam (argument to logic- Producing an argument to attack that is a weaker representation of the truth. This is the fallacy of assuming that something is false simply because a proof or argument that someone has offered for it is invalid; this reasoning is fallacious because there may be another proof or argument that successfully supports the proposition
1. Example: The government doesn't take care of the poor because it doesn't have a tax specifically to support the poor.
2. Example: We know that evolution is false because we did not evolve from monkeys.
19. Category Mistake - Attributing a property to something that could not possibly have that property.
1. Example: Blue sleeps faster than Wednesday.
2. Example: Saying logic is transcendental is like saying cars would exist if matter didn't.
20. Argumentum ad ignorantiam (argument to ignorance) - This is the fallacy of assuming something is true simply because it hasn't been proven false.
1. Example: that global warming is certainly occurring because nobody has demonstrated conclusively that it is not. But failing to prove the global warming theory false is not the same as proving it true
21. Argumentum ad nauseam (argument to the point of disgust; i.e., by repitition). This is the fallacy of trying to prove something by saying it again and again. But no matter how many times you repeat something, it will not become any more or less true than it was in the first place.
22. Argumentum ad numerum (argument or appeal to numbers). This fallacy is the attempt to prove something by showing how many people think that it's true. But no matter how many people believe something, that doesn't necessarily make it true or right.
1. Example: "At least 70% of all Americans support restrictions on access to abortions." Well, maybe 70% of Americans are wrong!
23. Argumentum ad verecundiam - This fallacy occurs when someone tries to demonstrate the truth of a proposition by citing some person who agrees, even though that person may have no expertise in the given area,
1. Example: , some people like to quote Einstein's opinions about politics (he tended to have fairly left-wing views), as though Einstein were a political philosopher rather than a physicist.
24. Dicto simpliciter (spoken simply, i.e., sweeping generalization. This is the fallacy of making a sweeping statement and expecting it to be true of every specific case
1. Example: "Women are on average not as strong as men and less able to carry a gun. Therefore women can't pull their weight in a military unit."
25. Nature, appea to-This is the fallacy of assuming that whatever is "natural" or consistent with "nature" (somehow defined) is good, or that whatever conflicts with nature is bad
25. Slippery slope - A slippery slope fallacy is an argument that says adopting one policy or taking one action will lead to a series of other policies or actions also being taken, without showing a causal connection between the advocated policy and the consequent policies.
Example: "If we legalize marijuana, the next thing you know we'll legalize heroin, LSD, and crack cocaine."
26. Tu quoque ("you too"). This is the fallacy of defending an error in one's reasoning by pointing out that one's opponent has made the same error.
Example: "They accuse us of making unjustified assertions. But they asserted a lot of things, too!"
Sources:
amfree.blog-city.com/argument_fallacies.htm
www.carm.org/apologetics/fallacies.htm
